Exam tests of Critical Thinking - Moore & Parker - 12th edition


What is critical thinking? - Exam 1

Open questions

Question 1

When do we think critically?

Question 2

What are the three core elements of critical thinking?

Question 3

What is meant by "cognitive bias"?

Question 4

What are heuristics?

Question 5

When do we say a claim is "true"?

Answer indication Open questions

  1. We think critically when we use our reasoning to come to conclusions.

  2. The three core elements of critical thinking are (1) assertions, (2) issues, and (3) arguments.

  3. "Cognitive bias" is a belief that is influenced by unconscious characteristics of human psychology.

  4. Heuristics are general rules that we use unconsciously when estimating probabilities.

  5. A claim is "true" when it is free from error.

What are two ways of reasoning? - Exam 2

Open questions

Question 1

What is a deductive argument? What exactly is the relationship between the conclusion and premises? When can the conclusion be incorrect?

Question 2

What is the difference between a deductive and an inductive argument?

Question 3

Consider the following reasoning: "Up to now, induction has always worked well, so it is a method that will always work well."

  1. What kind of reasoning is this?
  2. Is it a convincing argument? Why (not)?

Question 4

What is the problem with induction? What could it mean for the justification of scientific knowledge?

Question 5

Out of which two parts is an argument usually built up?

Question 6

What is the difference between a deductive argument and an inductive argument?

Question 7

When is an argument valid?

Question 8

What three levels of persuasion exist?

Answer indication Open questions

  1. A deductive argument consists of premises and conclusions. Premises are true statements, assumptions, and a conclusion that follows logically. If the premises are correct, the conclusion is that when you agree with the premises, you agree with the conclusion. For example: P1 = horses are larger than humans and P2 = people are larger than ants, it follows that C = horses are larger than ants. The conclusion of a deductive argument can be incorrect in two cases. If one or more of the premises is incorrect (ants are larger than horses) and if the argument is invalid, that is, it is constructed in the wrong way - P1 = horses are larger than humans and P2 = ants are smaller than horses, you cannot conclude that people are larger than ants or that ants are larger than people.

  2. The conclusion from a deductive argument is always true if the premises and the argumentation structure are correct. This provides certainty. However, this is a limited form of certainty; because what are we sure about? Where do we get the certain premises? And how do we ever come to new knowledge deductively reasoning? That the conclusion is certain is because it was already included in the premises. Strictly speaking, reduction does not provide any new knowledge. New knowledge is possible with inductive reasoning. Inductive arguments are 'non-conclusive', or 'non-demonstrative', which means that the conclusion does not logically follow from the premises but is only supported by them. A conclusion from an inductive argument is therefore never certain. This is a disadvantage, but at the same time makes new knowledge possible. From the fact that all the ravens you've seen so far were black, you can conclude that all ravens are probably black.

    1. This is an inductive reasoning because a conclusion (it will always work) is drawn from a number of observations (so far it has worked every time).

    2. This is not very convincing, since if the premise proves to be invalid once, the whole conclusion can be swept off the table.

  3. With induction, on the basis of a number of observations of a phenomenon, it is assumed that the phenomenon will always occur in this way. In addition, induction provides a "most likely explanation" based on facts. Take the following for example; "Your partner went to the supermarket this morning and bought lasagne sheets. She also got fresh tomatoes from your grandmother yesterday and you can smell the molten cheese all throughout the house. The inductive reasoning is that you eat lasagne tonight. If you sit down at the table, it appears that you are eating soup tonight. Your partner has been making lasagne for tomorrow because there is little time to cook tomorrow. Your induction was wrong. The same problem does occur in science. Because the majority of what we know is made up of induction, there is a high chance that incorrect assumptions have been made. This is also regularly proven.

  4. An argument is always composed of (1) one or more premise (s), and (2) a conclusion.

  5. The difference between a deductive argument and an inductive argument is that a deductive argument is used to prove a claim, while an inductive argument is used to support a claim.

  6. An argument is valid when it is impossible that the premises are true and the conclusion false at the same time.

  7. The three levels are: (1) ethos, (2) logos, and (3) pathos

How do you write a proper text? - Exam 3

Open questions

Question 1

When is a term called "vague"?

Question 2

When is there "ambiguity"?

Question 3

Which three types of ambiguities are distinguished?

Question 4

List three goals of definitions.

Question 5

What types of definitions are there?

Question 6

Which components does an essay consist of?

Answer indication Open questions

  1. A term is called vague when it is not clear what the limits of the concept are.

  2. Ambiguity occurs when a word or sentence has more than one meaning and can therefore be understood in different ways.

  3. Three types of ambiguity are: (1) semantic, (2) group related, and (3) syntactic ambiguity.

  4. Examples of correct answers are three of the following four: (1) through definitions we can know what words mean, (2) on the basis of definitions we can give special meaning to a word in some contexts, (3) we use definitions to avoid vagueness, ambiguity and generalization, and (4) definitions can be used to convince people.

  5. There are three types of definitions: (1) definitions based on examples, (2) definitions based on synonyms, and (3) analytical definitions.

  6. An essay consists of four components: (1) a clarification of the topic, (2) an explanation of one's own opinion about that topic, (3) arguments that support one's own opinion, and (4) invalidating people's arguments who have a different opinion on the subject.

When is something deemed credible? - Exam 4

Open questions

Question 1

In which three cases do claims lack credibility?

Question 2

Which factor determines whether the source has enough knowledge about the subject?

Question 3

What is one of the reasons that the quality of the news has declined?

Question 4

Which three things are important to know about the credibility of the media?

Question 5

Which three categories exist of commercials that do not use reasons to make us buy a certain product?

Answer indication Open questions

  1. Claims fall short of credibility when they (1) contradict our observations, (2) do not match our experiences or our background knowledge, or (3) come from unreliable sources.

  2. Whether a source has enough knowledge about a subject depends on someone's expertise and experience.

  3. One of the reasons why the quality of the news has decreased is that television channels in America are now owned by a small number of cooperatives.

  4. It is important to keep an eye on the following three things about the credibility of the media: (1) people in the media make mistakes, just like we do; (2) the media can experience pressure from the government and are sensitive to manipulation; and (3) most media want to make a profit.

  5. Commercials in which no reasons are given for us to buy a product consist of three categories: (1) commercials that unleash feelings within us, (2) commercials that show that people we admire use the product, and (3) commercials that show a product in a situation that we would like to find ourselves in.

How does persuasion work? - Exam 5

Open questions

Question 1

What is rhetoric?

Question 2

In which groups can rhetorical methods be subdivided?

Question 3

What is the difference between a euphemism and a dysphemism?

Question 4

What are demagogues?

Question 5

Name four techniques that use demagogues.

Answer indication Open questions

  1. Rhetoric is about research into convincing writing.

  2. Rhetoric methods can be divided into four groups. The first group usually consists of single words or short phrases that are positive or negative; called slanters. The second group of methods are dependent on unlawful assumptions. The third group consists of methods that deal with humor. Group 4 consists of methods that use definitions, explanations and analogies.

  3. A euphemism is used to express something as positive or neutral instead of negative. A dysphemism is the opposite of a euphemism and is therefore used to evoke a negative feeling in someone.

  4. Demagogues "use an extreme form of rhetoric to spread false ideas and to gain power over people.

  5. Four techniques that use demagogues are otherizing, demonizing, reinforcing xenophobia and fear and hate mongering.

How does relevance work? - Exam 6

Open questions

Question 1

What is a thinking error?

Question 2

What is a relevance thinking error?

Question 3

What is another name for a relevance thinking error?

Question 4

What is the most common relevance thinking error?

Question 5

What is a strawman?

Question 6

Which thinking error does not fit with the categories of relevant thinking errors discussed?

Answer indication Open questions

  1. A fallacy is a reasoning error; an argument that does not support its content

  2. With a relevant thinking error, the premise is not relevant to the issue issue

  3. Another name for a relevant thinking error is a "red herring".

  4. The "argumentum ad hominem" is the most common relevant thinking error.

  5. The "strawman" is a fallacy in which someone misunderstands or exaggerates the counterparty's vision.

  6. The "irrelevant conclusion".

What are the inductive thinking errors? - Exam 7

Open questions

Question 1

What is the similarity and difference between generalizations and analogies?

Question 2

What are inductive errors?

Question 3

Which two errors of thought often occur in inductive generalizations?

Question 4

What does the "weak analogy" fallacy mean?

Question 5

Name two known thinking errors in which an wrong cause-effect relationship is assumed.

Answer indication Open questions

  1. With both forms we can draw a conclusion about a certain group. However, in an analogy this is done by comparing the group with another group. For example: if group A and group B look alike at this stage, then group A and group B will look alike in the next stageWith generalization you draw a conclusion about a group by looking at a sample. If a sample from that group shows these traits to a large extent, the group will most likely also show these traits.

  2. Inductive errors of thought are intended to support the likelihood of their conclusions, but are in reality too weak to be able to do so.

  3. Two errors of thought that often occur with inductive generalizations are: (1) generalizing too quickly ("hasty generalizing") and (2) incorrect generalizing ("biased generalizing")

  4. The fallacy of "weak analogy" (also called false analogy) is a weak argument based on unimportant similarities between two or more things.

  5. Two known thinking errors are "post hoc, ergo propter hoc" and "cum hoc, ergo propter hoc".

What are the different types of thinking errors? - Exam 8

Open questions

Question 1

Name three formal thinking errors.

Question 2

What do the thinking errors "equivocation" and "ambipholy" have in common?

Question 3

What is the difference between the thinking errors "composition" and "denial"?

Question 4

What does the "gambler's mistake" mean?

Answer indication Open questions

  1. Three formal errors of thought are "confirmation of the consistent", "denial of the antecedent" and "the undivided middle".

  2. With these two errors of thinking, a mistake is made regarding the semantic ambiguity.

  3. The fallacy of composition occurs when an attribute of parts of something is erroneously assigned to the whole. The opposite of this is the division of thought: assuming that something that is true for the whole is also true for parts of the whole.

  4. Someone is convinced that the earlier performance of independent events will have an effect on a subsequent independent event.

What deductive arguments are there? - Exam 9

Open questions

Question 1

What are categorical claims? Which four main types can you distinguish? Give an example of each.

Question 2

What is a syllogism?

Question 3

What are the most important concepts that occur here? Why are they important to science?

Question 4

Which four types of claims exist?

Question 5

Which model can be used to describe these claims?

Question 6

What does the "square of opposition" mean?

Question 7

Name three categorical techniques that can be used to transform a claim.

Question 8

What are categorical syllogisms?

Answer indication Open questions

  1. Categorical statements are statements that say something about the group (category) of certain things. Categorical statements are statements about a specific category. The four main types are General Laws Affirmative (A), General Laws Denial (E), Observations Affirmative (I) and Observations Denial (O). Examples:

    • A: All metals are conductors.

    • E: No plastics are conductors.

    • I: Some metals are conductors.

    • O: Some metals are not conductors.

  2. A syllogism is a deductive argument that is derived from two premises. The most important terms are:

    • Major term: the term that serves as the predication term for the conclusion of syllogism, this is indicated by the letter P.

    • Minor term: the term that serves as the subject term of the conclusion of the syllogism is indicated by the letter S.

    • The middle term: the term that occurs in both premises but not in the conclusion is indicated by the letter M.

  3. Syllogisms are important for science because with syllogisms you can draw a conclusion that is true from two arguments that are true. So you can check whether an argument is valid. An example:

    • All Dutch people are consumers

    • Some consumers are not VVD people

    • Some Dutch people are not VVD people (conclusion)

    • No VVD members = P

    • Dutch = S

    • Consumers = M

  4. There are four types of claims: A- ('all ... are ...') ,, I- ('some ... are ...'), E- ('no ... are ...'), and O- ('some ... are not ... claims).

  5. These claims can be described by means of Venn diagrams.

  6. The square of opposition shows the relationships between different types of claims.

  7. Three categorical techniques can be used to transform claims are: conversion, obversion and contraposition.

  8. Categorical syllogisms are standardized deductive arguments.

What other deductive arguments are there? - Exam 10

Open questions

Question 1

What is a proposition? What is the difference between a single and compound proposition? What is the role of conjunctions in this?

Question 2

The two deduction rules associated with the conditional proposition "If ... then ..." are the Modus Ponens (MP) and Modus Tollens (MT). Give the truth table for "If ... then ...". Show the reasoning schemes for MP and MT. Use the truth table for "If ... then ..." to show why MP and MT are valid reasoning schemes. Also give 2 examples of invalid arguments.

Question 3

What are conjunctions in proposition logic? What conjunctions are there? Give the truth table of two conjunctions.

Question 4

What is fallacy? Why is verification also called "fallacy of the consequences"? Explain this on the basis of the reasoning scheme (syllogism) of verification and the accompanying truth table.

Question 5

What four types of truth tables are there?

Question 6

What does a "truth-functional analysis" mean?

Question 7

By means of which tool can we investigate whether an argument is valid?

Question 8

What does deduction mean?

Answer indication Open questions

Question 1

A proposition is a statement that can be true or false, it cannot be further simplified (Paul is at home -> true or false). A single proposition is a single proposition. A compound proposition consists of 2 propositions that can be connected to each other in various ways by joining (e.g. A and B).

Question 2

Truth tables help you investigate whether a formula is valid or can be fulfilled. They can also be used to find out whether a conclusion is valid and whether two formulas are logically equivalent. In truth tables the truth or untruth of a proposition can be indicated in different ways. One can simply write "true" or "false", but usually one writes T (for true, true) and F (for false, false). They also use the 1 for true and 0 for false.

P

Q

P → Q

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

The truth table for "if .. then" is as follows:

N.B. "If A, then B" is always 1, except if A = 1 and B = 0.

A is the antecedent and B the consequence. So "if A then B" is only false when the antecedent is true and the consequence false. If both A and B are false, the statement is still correct. For example: If Jan drives faster than 50 (A), Jan will be fined (B). If A and B are both false, so Jan does not drive faster than 50 and Jan is not fined, the claim is still true.

Modus ponens

Suppose: "if P then Q" = 1 and P = 1 then Q must always be 1. This is called the mode ponens, also called the wise or cut-off rule.

Modus Tollens

Suppose: "if P then Q" = 1 and Q = 0, then P must also be 0. This is also called the uplifting wise. The tollens mode is used for falsification.

Examples of reasoning:

Valid: Modus Ponens

• [1] If A, then B [1]

• If your rabbit eats wolfberries, it will get sick.

• [2] A [2] Your rabbit eats wolfberries.

• [3] So: B [3] So: he gets sick.

Valid: Modus Tollens

• [1] If A, then B [1]

• If your rabbit eats wolfberries, it will get sick

• [2] Not B [2] Your rabbit is not sick

• [3] So: Not A [3] So he did not eat any wolf-cherry.

Invalid: Confirming the consequent

• [1] If A, then B [1]

• If your rabbit eats wolfberries, it will get sick.

• [2] B [2] Your rabbit is sick.

• [3] So: A [3] So: he ate wolfberries.

Invalid: Denial of the antecedent

• [1] If A, then B [1]

• If your rabbit eats wolfberries, it will get sick.

• [2] Not A [2] Your rabbit does not eat wolfers

• [3] So: Not B [3] So: he doesn't get sick.

With the two invalid variants, A (the 'if' part) is seen as a necessary condition, while this is a sufficient condition. For example, look at the invalid confirmation of the consequences: there may be all sorts of other reasons why your rabbit is sick.

Question 3

The propositions in a compound proposition are connected by conjunctions. These conjunctions are and, or and if ... then. The negation ('not') is also counted under the conjunctions.

Each conjunction or negation has a truth table that shows how the truth of a compound proposition can be derived from the sub-propositions. The truth table shows what the conjunction does when the two propositions are put together. Here, "true" = 1 and "false" = 0. For example: If "A" is true (1) and "B" is also (1), "A and B" is true (1). If "A" is true (1) and "B" is not (0), "A and B" is not true (0).

Question 4

A fallacy is a proposition that cannot be verified on the basis of an argument, because this argument is missing, or because the argument does not apply to the proposition.

Suppose: "If P then Q" = 1 and Q = 1 then P can be both 1 and 0. You can see this in the first and second to last line of the truth table. Verification therefore provides no certainty and is also referred to as the fallacy of the consequence (fallacy of the consequent). Verification is used in testing and accepting hypotheses, but according to the proposition logic therefore gives no certainty. The hypothesis is correct with regard to the observation but can also be caused by something completely different.

Question 5

Conjunction, negation, conditional and disjunction.

Question 6

Such an analysis shows the truth values ​​of a general claim based on the truth values ​​of smaller parts of the claim.

Question 7

We can determine whether an argument is valid based on a truth table.

Question 8

Deduction is a useful means of proving, in particular, that an argument is valid instead of an argument being invalid

What is inductive reasoning? - Exam 11

[TOC]

Open questions

Question 1

What is a proposition? What is the difference between a single and compound proposition? What is the role of conjunctions in this?

Question 2

What is fallacy? Why is verification also called "fallacy of the consequences"? Explain this on the basis of the reasoning scheme (syllogism) of verification and the accompanying truth table.

Question 3

What are physical causal explanations? What are behavioural causal explanations? This question is based on the 10th edition of the book

Question 4

What is meant by the Best Diagnosis Method? What is this method used for? What is the role of background knowledge in this? This question is based on the 10th edition of the book.

Question 5

What is an argument based on analogy?

Question 6

Which parts does an argument based on analogy consist of?

Question 7

When is there generalization?

Question 8

Which three principles apply to a causal statement?

Question 9

What methods are there that can be implemented to confirm or deny a causal statement?

Answer indication Open questions

  1. A proposition is a statement that can be true or false, it cannot be further simplified (Paul is at home -> true or false). A single proposition is a single proposition. A compound proposition consists of 2 propositions that can be connected to each other in various ways by joining (eg A and B).

  2. A fallacy is a proposition that cannot be verified on the basis of an argument, because this argument is missing, or because the argument does not apply to the proposition. Suppose: "If P then Q" = 1 and Q = 1 then P can be both 1 and 0. You can see this in the first and second to last line of the truth table. Verification therefore provides no certainty and is also referred to as the fallacy of the consequence (fallacy of the consequent). Verification is used in testing and accepting hypotheses, but according to the proposition logic therefore gives no certainty. The hypothesis is correct with regard to the observation, but can also be caused by something completely different.

  3. Statements and arguments are different things, but they can have something in common. Declarations can be used as an argument, namely as a premise and as a conclusion. There are many kinds of explanations. Two of these are: (1) physical causal statements and (2) behavioural causal statements.

    • Physical causal explanations: With a physical causal explanation, a causal explanation is requested for an event in terms of the physical background. The physical background is about the general conditions in which an event has occurred. Examples of these general conditions are temperature or humidity. Often these conditions are not specifically highlighted because we already know them. When the conditions are not expected, it is often necessary to specifically highlight them. The physical background of an event is also about the direct cause of an event. However, in reality, multiple causes contribute to an event. Our interests and knowledge determine which link in a causal chain we identify as the cause of the event. Examples of questions that deal with physical causal explanations are: "How come my tape is empty?", "How come I have high blood pressure?", "Why are some species extinct?" “How does global warming come to be?'

    • Behavioural causal statements: When we ask ourselves what the cause of a behaviour is, a behavioural causal explanation is sought. This happens in terms of reasons and motives. Just as with physical causal explanations, behavioural causal explanations often also contain relevant background information and an attempt to determine the cause of the behaviour. The causal background is often about political, social, economic and psychological factors. It is important to distinguish between a reason for doing something and a specific reason for a person doing something. There may be a specific reason why someone helps a homeless person, but the same reason may not be the basis of other people's helping behaviour. With a "reason" for doing something we give an argument why someone does something and with a "specific reason for doing something" we explain why someone does something. Examples of behavioural causal statements are: "Why did the board not approve the contract?", "Why was Emma opposed to the idea?", "Why do people fight?" And "Why do butlers get paid more when they have an English accent?”

  4. The "Best Diagnosis Method" is different from the Method of Difference or the Method of Conformity. It is about the best explanation of various symptoms when diagnosing a disease. However, this method can also be used in other non-medical situations. When a murder is committed, the clues can serve as "symptoms," while the murder can be called "disease." In this case, the best possible explanation of the murder is called the "Best Diagnosis Method."

  5. An argument based on analogy is an argument that something has a certain property, because an equal thing has the same property.

  6. Such an argument consists of two analogues: a premise analogue and a conclusion analogue.

  7. You generalize from a sample when you attribute a certain trait to members of a certain population, because this is proven in a small group.

  8. Three principles apply here: the "paired unusual events principle", the "common variable principle" and the covariate principle.

  9. These methods are (1) a randomized experiment, (2) prospective observational study, and (3) retrospective observational study.

How does Moral, Lawful and Ethical reasoning work? - Exam 12

Open questions

Question 1

What is the difference between a value judgment and moral reasoning?

Question 2

Name two principles of moral reasoning.

Question 3

What does consequentialism mean?

Question 4

Name three examples of consequentialism.

Question 5

What does duty theory mean?

Question 6

Which form of ethics does not focus on what needs to be done, but on how someone should behave?

Answer indication Open questions

  1. A value judgment is a statement that expresses values, while moral reasoning is about assessments based on moral values ​​(for example, in terms of good or bad).

  2. Two principles of moral reasoning are the consistency principle and moral principles.

  3. Consequentialism is based on the principle that the consequences of a decision or action determine the moral value.

  4. Three examples are utilitarianism, egoism and altruism.

  5. In duty theory, moral duties are valued. We should do things or not do something not to achieve something, but simply because it is right or wrong.

  6. Virtue ethics.

Join World Supporter
Join World Supporter
Log in or create your free account

Why create an account?

  • Your WorldSupporter account gives you access to all functionalities of the platform
  • Once you are logged in, you can:
    • Save pages to your favorites
    • Give feedback or share contributions
    • participate in discussions
    • share your own contributions through the 7 WorldSupporter tools
Follow the author: Vintage Supporter
Promotions
vacatures

JoHo kan jouw hulp goed gebruiken! Check hier de diverse bijbanen die aansluiten bij je studie, je competenties verbeteren, je cv versterken en je een bijdrage laten leveren aan een mooiere wereld

verzekering studeren in het buitenland

Ga jij binnenkort studeren in het buitenland?
Regel je zorg- en reisverzekering via JoHo!

Access level of this page
  • Public
  • WorldSupporters only
  • JoHo members
  • Private
Statistics
[totalcount]
Content categories
Comments, Compliments & Kudos

Add new contribution

CAPTCHA
This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions.
Image CAPTCHA
Enter the characters shown in the image.