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Study guide with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology by Israel ea

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Table of content / Inhoudsopgave Abnormal child and adolescent psychology

  • Wat is abnormaal gedrag? - Chapter 1
  • Wat is ontwikkelingspsychopathologie? - Chapter 2
  • Wat zijn de biologische en omgevingscontexten van psychopathologie? - Chapter 3
  • Wat zijn de rol en methoden van onderzoek in de psychologie? - Chapter 4
  • Hoe kunnen psychische stoornissen worden geclassificeerd, beoordeeld en ingegrepen? - Chapter 5
  • Wat zijn angst- en obsessief-compulsieve stoornissen? - Chapter 6
  • Wat zijn trauma- en stressorgerelateerde stoornissen? - Chapter 7
  • Wat zijn stemmingsstoornissen? - Chapter 8
  • Wat zijn gedragsproblemen? - Chapter 9
  • Wat is Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? - Chapter 10
  • Wat zijn communicatie- en leerstoornissen? - Chapter 11
  • Wat zijn verstandelijke beperkingen? - Chapter 12
  • Wat zijn ASS en schizofrenie? - Chapter 13
  • Wat zijn aandoeningen van fysieke basisfuncties? - Chapter 14
  • Welke psychologische factoren beïnvloeden medische aandoeningen? - Chapter 15
  • Wat zijn de evoluerende zorgen voor jongeren? - Epiloog

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Samenvattingen per hoofdstuk bij de 8e druk van Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology van Wicks-Nelson & Israel - Bundel

Samenvattingen per hoofdstuk bij de 8e druk van Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology van Wicks-Nelson & Israel - Bundel

Study guide with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology by Israel ea

Study guide with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology by Israel ea

Study guide with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology by Israel ea

Online summaries and study assistance with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology on worldsupporter.org

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Table of content / Inhoudsopgave Abnormal child and adolescent psychology

  • Wat is abnormaal gedrag? - Chapter 1
  • Wat is ontwikkelingspsychopathologie? - Chapter 2
  • Wat zijn de biologische en omgevingscontexten van psychopathologie? - Chapter 3
  • Wat zijn de rol en methoden van onderzoek in de psychologie? - Chapter 4
  • Hoe kunnen psychische stoornissen worden geclassificeerd, beoordeeld en ingegrepen? - Chapter 5
  • Wat zijn angst- en obsessief-compulsieve stoornissen? - Chapter 6
  • Wat zijn trauma- en stressorgerelateerde stoornissen? - Chapter 7
  • Wat zijn stemmingsstoornissen? - Chapter 8
  • Wat zijn gedragsproblemen? - Chapter 9
  • Wat is Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? - Chapter 10
  • Wat zijn communicatie- en leerstoornissen? - Chapter 11
  • Wat zijn verstandelijke beperkingen? - Chapter 12
  • Wat zijn ASS en schizofrenie? - Chapter 13
  • Wat zijn aandoeningen van fysieke basisfuncties? - Chapter 14
  • Welke psychologische factoren beïnvloeden medische aandoeningen? - Chapter 15
  • Wat zijn de evoluerende zorgen voor jongeren? - Epiloog

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Samenvattingen en studiehulp bij Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology van Israel e.a. - Boektool
Summaries per chapter with the 8th edition of Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology by Wicks-Nelson & Israel - Bundle

Summaries per chapter with the 8th edition of Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology by Wicks-Nelson & Israel - Bundle

Study guide with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology by Israel ea

Study guide with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology by Israel ea

Study guide with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology by Israel ea

Online summaries and study assistance with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology on worldsupporter.org

Prints & Pickup with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology

  • Nederlandse printsamenvatting bij Abnormal child and adolescent psychology
  • Pre-order and pickup or use the postal service

Table of content / Inhoudsopgave Abnormal child and adolescent psychology

  • Wat is abnormaal gedrag? - Chapter 1
  • Wat is ontwikkelingspsychopathologie? - Chapter 2
  • Wat zijn de biologische en omgevingscontexten van psychopathologie? - Chapter 3
  • Wat zijn de rol en methoden van onderzoek in de psychologie? - Chapter 4
  • Hoe kunnen psychische stoornissen worden geclassificeerd, beoordeeld en ingegrepen? - Chapter 5
  • Wat zijn angst- en obsessief-compulsieve stoornissen? - Chapter 6
  • Wat zijn trauma- en stressorgerelateerde stoornissen? - Chapter 7
  • Wat zijn stemmingsstoornissen? - Chapter 8
  • Wat zijn gedragsproblemen? - Chapter 9
  • Wat is Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? - Chapter 10
  • Wat zijn communicatie- en leerstoornissen? - Chapter 11
  • Wat zijn verstandelijke beperkingen? - Chapter 12
  • Wat zijn ASS en schizofrenie? - Chapter 13
  • Wat zijn aandoeningen van fysieke basisfuncties? - Chapter 14
  • Welke psychologische factoren beïnvloeden medische aandoeningen? - Chapter 15
  • Wat zijn de evoluerende zorgen voor jongeren? - Epiloog

Related content on joho.org with Abnormal child and adolescent psychology

What is abnormal behaviour? - Chapter 1

What is abnormal behaviour? - Chapter 1

When is behaviour considered abnormal?

You can use many varying terms to describe abnormal behaviour. Consider, for example, ‘mental disorder’, ‘psychological disorder’, ‘psychopathology’ of ‘developmental disorder’. This is why guidelines have been developed to help identify abnormality. What does abnormal behaviour actually mean?

Abnormal behaviour occurs when the actions of a significant person deviate from the normal standard of behaviour. According to this definition, a child with a far above average IQ is thus also considered abnormal. So, abnormal doesn’t immediately mean ‘bad’. Psychopathology research involves abnormal behaviours that are harmful to the individual. The APA (American Psychiatric Association) defines a disorder as a ‘clinically significant pattern in an individual’ (psychological and behavioural). This pattern causes frustration, disruptions, an increased risk of harm or danger to one’s wellbeing. Psychopathology interferes with the adaptation to the environment and impedes the individual from completing developmental tasks. A disorder can be seen as an internal problem or as a person's response to circumstances. The final explanation tend to be more obvious to recognise.

What is the concept of developmental standards?

Age can be considered as an index for the level of development and is important in assessing behaviour. Assessments of behaviour depend on developmental norms, which say something about the growth of motor skills, language, cognition and socio-emotional behaviour. These standards serve as a benchmark when looking at the (abnormal) development of a child. There are different ways to regard behaviour as deviating from the norms:

  • Developmental delay.
  • Developmental regression.
  • Extremely high or low frequency of behaviour.
  • Extremely high or low intensity of behaviour.
  • Behavioural difficulty persisting over time.
  • Behaviour that is inappropriate for the situation.
  • Abrupt behavioural changes.
  • Problem behaviours (several).
  • Qualitatively deviant behaviour.

Cultural standards

There is culture when groups of people are organized in specific ways, live in a specific environment and share specific beliefs, norms, values ​​and customs. Cultural norms influence the expectations, assessments and ideas regarding the behaviour of young people. What is very normal in one culture can be very strange in another culture. As a result, disorders can be culturally specific.

Ethnicity is about shared values, beliefs and customs in an area. Race, on the other hand, is based on physical characteristics of a person. Shared standards and values also exist based on race. Within a heterogeneous society, ethnic or racial groups can express psychopathology in a different way and can have different ideas about it compared to the dominant cultural group.

Sexual norms and situational norms

Something that can also influence behaviour and psychological wellbeing are sexual norms. For example, we are more worried about a shy boy than a shy girl. During behavioural assessments, situational norms are also taken into account: expectations in specific settings or social situations. It is normal to run on the soccer field, but not in the library.

The role of others in abnormal behaviour

Generally, when children are sent for clinical evaluation, it’s because of the problems they create to others. This reference has just as much to do with the characteristics of the person who refers the child (for example the parents or a teacher) as with the child itself. There is often disagreement about whether the child has a problem. This may be due to differences in the extent to which adults are exposed to different child behaviours, but also due to differences in attitudes, sensitivity, tolerance and the ability to cope with the behaviour (coping).

Changing views on abnormality

Assessments of abnormality change over time. Masturbation used to be seen as a sign of insanity, whereas nowadays that is no longer the case. Many factors contribute to changes in behavioural assessments, such as an increase in knowledge and changes in cultural beliefs.

What is the prevalence of abnormal behaviour?

Determining a disorder depends on, among other things, the definition of a disorder, the criteria for identifying a disorder, the method used to identify a disorder and the population being examined. Some people are concerned that social changes have led to an increased risk of youth disorders. However, there is no consensus regarding this upcoming ‘trend’ among young people. While some studies show that the prevalence of disorders is increasing, other studies have concluded that there is a decrease. Moreover, it is difficult to draw conclusions about such supposed increases. Perhaps it is possible that there are more kids with trouble focussing, simply because we are able to save more babies that have been born prematurely and these kids have an increased chance of concentration problems. It has been discovered that this increase in percentages was not due to doctor’s being quicker with diagnosing mental health problems or to higher percentages of parents with divorce. For example, the mother's emotional problems could contribute to behavioural problems or emotional problems.

Often mental health problems are not recognized. This is a serious problem because early disorders can interfere with subsequent developmental processes. This leads to an accumulation of problems – and this is what developmental psychopathology looks at.

Is there a relationship between developmental level and disorder?

There is a connection between specific problems and the age at which they usually arise. For example, speech problems are noticed when a child starts talking. Other disorders develop gradually and sometimes the starting point differs per gender. The following is an overview of the age categories in which specific disorders are often encountered or identified for the first time.

  • Between birth and the age of six: language disorder, autism spectrum disorder, asparagus and some intellectual disabilities.
  • Between four years and twelve years: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
  • From six years to adolescence: learning disabilities.
  • From eight years up to adolescence: cross-norm behavioural disorder (conduct disorder, CD).
  • From twelve to eighteen years of age: schizophrenia, drug abuse, bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa.

It is useful to determine at what age a disorder occurs in a child. If it is known at what age a specific disorder usually develops, this may give indications for its aetiology. For example, if a disorder develops at a young age, this indicates a genetic and/or prenatal aetiology, while a later starting point indicates environmental influences. In addition, this information provides starting points for assessing the severity or outcome of the disorder: the sooner a disorder develops, the more serious the problems are. Finally, parents, teachers and other adults are more aware of the signs of specific problems if they know at what age these problems usually arise. This can lead to the prevention or early treatment of the problems.

The relationship between gender and psychological disorders

Many disorders are more common in men than in women. The prevalence of the following disorders is higher for men:

  • Autism spectrum disorder.
  • Oppositional rebellious disorder (Oppositional Defiant Disorder, ODD).
  • Cross-norm behavioural disorder (Conduct Disorder, CD).
  • Drug abuse.
  • Mental disorder.
  • Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
  • Language disorder.
  • Reading disorder.

The following disorders are more common in women:

  • Anxiety Disorder.
  • Depressive Disorder.
  • Eating Disorder.

Men are more sensitive to neurological developmental disorders that arise early, while women are more sensitive to emotional problems in adolescence. Problems are also expressed differently by men and women. For example, men engage in physical aggression faster, while women exhibit more relational aggression, such as spreading gossip. The severity causes and consequences of some disorders also differ per gender.

It is possible that found sex differences (in terms of disorders) are the result of methodological causes. In the past, for example, the main focus of studies were men. Misleading research results may also be due to the willingness (or unwillingness) of men and women to talk about their problems. There can also be a referral bias, which means that on certain behaviour (such as shyness, one gender is quicker to have it be defined as ‘problematic behaviour’). In clinical samples, bias can also arise when more boys are involved in a study of a certain disorder, because they are being treated more, this leads to a description of how boys deal with a disorder. This may look different for girls, which may make them fall outside the definition of the disorder.

Nevertheless, despite these methodical problems, there exist real differences between men and women. There are differences in biological predisposition, brain function and gender hormones between men and women. Men and women can also react biologically differently to stress. There are also sex differences in exposure to risky and protective experiences that are associated with psychopathology.

How were psychological disorders viewed throughout history?

In the course of the 17th century, people recognized that children need attention, care and love. In the 18th century, children were considered either sinful or innocent. Others considered the child to be an "unwritten sheet," filled with experiences. In the 19th century, adolescence was seen as a phase with many challenges. In this century, adult mental disorders were attributed to two causes: (1) demonology: the adult is possessed by the devil or by evil spirits; and (2) somatogenesis: mental problems are caused by the malfunctioning of the body. In the late 19th century, the dominant assumption was that disorders occur early in childhood and are inherited from their parents. There is currently much interest in this way of thinking in science.

Kraeplin

At the end of the 19th century, treatments and classifications of mental disorders were sought. Kraeplin stated that various symptoms combined together formed syndromes, which probably have a common biological basis. He believed that each disorder has its own cause, its own symptoms, its own development patterns and specific effects. He developed a modern classification system to group deviations in children.

Freud

Freud is the founder of the psychoanalytic theory and the associated psychoanalysis treatment method. Freud believed in psychogenesis: that mental problems are the result of psychological factors. He believed that unconscious conflicts and crises from childhood determine behaviour. Freud stated that we all have an ID, an ego and a superego, which are constantly in conflict with each other. Anxiety is a warning signal for the ego (the problem-solving part of the mind) that impulses from the ID, which are unacceptable to the superego, try to penetrate into consciousness. To be protected against the awareness of unacceptable impulses, there are, according to Freud, defence mechanisms that deny or change these impulses.

The psychoanalytic perspective is related to the psychosexual stage theory. This theory assumes there are five phases. In each phase the focus is on a different part of the body: 1) the oral phase, 2) the anal phase, 3) the phallic phase, 4) the latent phase and 5) the genital phase. In the first three phases, there are crises that are crucial for further development. For example, a baby puts pretty much everything in its mouth during the oral phase. During the anal phase the child learns to become toilet trained. During the phallic phase, a boy wants his mother to himself (the Oedipus complex)/ a girl falls in love with her father (the Electra complex). According to Freud, the personality of a person is largely shaped by the way in which the crises in the first three phases are resolved. There has been much criticism of this theory because Freud based this theory on his own patients and the theory was difficult to test. The classical psychoanalytic theory has now been modernized. Less emphasis is placed on sexual forces and more on social influences. Erik Erikson, for example, came up with psychosocial development theory.

What is the role of behaviourism in psychological disorders?

Behaviourism is Watson’s best-known theory. It states that most behaviour is explained by learning experiences. Watson strongly believed in classical conditioning; a concept introduced by Pavlov. This concept means that new things are learned by linking a new stimulus to an already known stimulus.

Thorndike came up with the law of effect: behaviour is formed by the associated consequences. If the consequences are positive, the behaviour will increase, while the behaviour with negative consequences will decrease. Skinner introduced operant conditioning. This way of conditioning is about learning behaviour based on the consequences associated with the behaviour. Operant conditioning is therefore based on the law of effect.

The social learning theory of Bandura is based on observational learning. He mainly emphasized social context and cognition. Learning is  necessity of survival for everybody. The application of learning principles in the discovery and treatment of behavioural problems is called behaviour modification or behaviour therapy. Approaches that are based primarily on a combination of learning principles and social context (and / or cognition) are called social learning or cognitive behavioural perspectives.

Mental hygiene movement

The mental hygiene movement stood for more understanding, better treatment and more prevention of disorders. This movement led to a reformation of the science. There was also the child guidance movement. This movement focused primarily on children, because childhood experiences would affect mental health later in life. At the beginning of the 20th century, children began to become the subject of scientific research. Hall was the first to collect data from children to understand mental disorders, crime and social disorders. Binet and Simon were the first to design an intelligence test for children. They tried to find out which children needed special education. Gesell kept track of the physical, motor and social behaviours of children in his laboratory.

What are the current principles of abnormal child and adolescent psychology?

The branch of psychology that deals with abnormal child and adolescent psychology is formed by various historical theories and movements. The objectives are to identify, describe and classify psychological disorders. It is also important to find out the causes of the problems and to prevent and treat disorders differently. Today there are six principles that are important for abnormal child and adolescent psychology:

  1. Psychological problems have multiple causes. Increasing knowledge about these causes promotes the prevention of problems.
  2. Normal and abnormal behaviour are interrelated. Both must be studied.
  3. Human behaviour is complex and requires systematic conceptualization, data collection, observation and testing of hypotheses.
  4. The effectiveness of treatment must be investigated, and new prevention programs developed.
  5. Children have the right to high-quality care.
  6. Adults must stand up for the health of children.

Central to the current understanding of psychopathology are: (1) interdisciplinary efforts and (2) the role of parents. Interdisciplinary efforts are about the fact that often more than one professional is involved in the treatment of a child's psychopathology. Psychologists, psychiatrists, teachers and social workers often work together. Attempts by a social worker to get therapeutic alliance with the patient can increase the chance of a positive result. Therapeutic alliance means creating a personal bond with the child and collaborating. Parents also have an important role to play. They can provide information about the child that nobody else knows. They can collaborate with psychologists in the implementation of a treatment or can undergo treatment themselves.

The choice of treatment technique must be tailored to the child's developmental level. For example, play therapy is more effective in young children, while cognitive techniques are more effective in adolescence.

Finally, the American Psychological Association has established ethical guidelines, which include the rights to (1) informed consent , (2) co-decision on treatment goals and (3) confidential care. Informed consent requires that the client gives permission for the treatment and fully understands how the treatment will proceed. For children, the parents / guardians must give permission for this.

What does the field of developmental psychopathology entail? - Chapter 2

What does the field of developmental psychopathology entail? - Chapter 2

What is the meaning of a paradigm?

Kuhn, among others, has shown us that science is not entirely objective. To study phenomena, scientists all take a perspective from which they view it. If a perspective is shared by researchers, this is called a paradigm. It is a kind of cognitive frame of reference that includes assumptions and concepts. The advantage of such a (subjective) perspective is that it provides guidelines for the way in which a problem is approached, investigated and interpreted. A disadvantage is that researchers can limit themselves by assuming this perspective and are confined within the boundaries of it. They can limit themselves in the type of research questions or in the interpretation of research results. Despite these disadvantages, it is still smart to take a perspective.

What is the influence of genes and environment on behaviour? - Chapter 3

What is the influence of genes and environment on behaviour? - Chapter 3

What is the relevance of neurons and the brain on behaviour?

The early development of the brain and nervous system is largely determined by biological factors, but the influence that experience has is also fairly large. The nervous system begins to develop shortly after conception, as the neural plate (a group of cells) thickens, folds in and forms the neural tube. The cells start to migrate to fixed locations. The brain contains millions of multifunctional cells, glial cells, and neurons. Neurons carry messages within the nervous system and to and from other body parts. The extensions of these neurons, called nerves, get a layer of myelin, a white substance that promotes the efficiency of communication in the brain. An excess of neurons and connections is produced both before and after birth to ensure the flexibility of the brain. Some parts of the brain develop faster than others. For example, the development of brain parts for vision and hearing is faster than the development of the frontal brain area, which is involved in complex thinking.

There are many developments in the brain during adolescence. In this way the connections between brain areas increase. Also, the amount of grey matter in the frontal brain area decreases, while the white matter shows an increase, which is a reflection of constant myelination. These changes have implications for psychological and behavioural functioning.

The development of the brain depends on the interaction between biological predisposition and experiences (activity-dependent processes). There is pruning occurring both before and after birth, which means unnecessary cells and connections between cells are broken down. This process is probably the cause of the decline in grey matter in adolescence.

What is the role of research in psychology? - Chapter 4

What is the role of research in psychology? - Chapter 4

What is science?

The general purpose of science is to describe and explain phenomena. Scientific knowledge comes from a systematic formulation of a problem, observation and data collection and interpretation of research results. Theoretical assumptions and concepts are used to choose variables, procedures and research goals. Often hypotheses are tested that are derived from theories. Testing hypotheses is valuable because knowledge is then obtained in a systematic manner. When finished, a study does not prove that a hypothesis is true or false but it does offer evidence in favour or against the hypothesis. If a hypothesis is not supported, this can lead to an adjustment of the underlying theory.

How can psychological disorders be classified? - Chapter 5

How can psychological disorders be classified? - Chapter 5

What are concepts in classification systems?

The terms classification, assessment and diagnosis are used to describe the process of description and grouping. Classification (or taxonomy) stands for creating large categories or dimensions of behavioural disorders. It is a system for describing phenomena. These systems are mostly for clinical or scientific purposes. A diagnosis is when a category or classification is considered applicable to an individual. Assessment refers to evaluating (young) people to facilitate classification and diagnosis and to make treatment plans.

Classification systems try to systematically describe a phenomenon. For example, biologists have classification systems for organisms, such as cold and warm-blooded animals. There are also systems for classifying psychological problems. These systems describe categories or dimensions of problem behaviour, emotions and / or cognitions.

A category is a discrete grouping, for example anxiety disorders, to which an individual belongs or does not belong. A dimension , on the other hand, is a continuous property that can occur in various sizes. For example, there are different degrees to which a child is anxious.

The categories or dimensions in a classification system must be clearly defined: the criteria must be explicitly named. In addition, a distinction must be made between the different categories. It must also be proven that a category or dimension actually exists, meaning that the characteristics used to describe a category or dimension must regularly occur together.

What are anxiety disorders and what are their characteristics? - Chapter 6

What are anxiety disorders and what are their characteristics? - Chapter 6

What is the meaning of anxiety, fear, and worry?

There is a difference between anxiety and fear. Anxiety is an emotion that is focused on the future. This emotion is characterized by the feeling that someone has no control over possible negative events. The events also seem to be unpredictable for the person in question. If someone is confronted with potentially dangerous events, there is immediately a lot of attention for the dreaded (or for the emotions that accompany it).

What are mood disorders and what are they characterized by? - Chapter 7

What are mood disorders and what are they characterized by? - Chapter 7

What are the developments with regards to our understanding of mood disorders?

An important aspect of internalizing disorders are mood problems. Children and adolescents who have an unusually sad or euphoric mood, which  are extreme or persistent and interfere with functioning, can be diagnosed with a depressed or manic mood disorder. Nowadays there is increasing attention for mood disorders, for various reasons:

  • Promising developments in the identification and treatment of mood disorders in adults.
  • Better instruments have been developed to investigate mood disorders in young people.
  • Improvements in diagnostic practices have encouraged research into mood disorders among young people.

It is difficult to distinguish between different sub-categories of mood disorders, because many people meet the criteria of more than one disorder.

What are behavioural problems? - Chapter 8

What are behavioural problems? - Chapter 8

What does externalizing mean?

While anxiety and depression arise from internalizing problems, behavioural disorders are often the result of externalizing them. The term ‘behavioural problems’ refers to the general group of disruptive and antisocial behavioural problems. The terms behavioural disorder and disruptive behavioural disorder are used to refer to specific diagnostic groups. The term delinquency is mainly used in the legal system and refers to young people who exhibit antisocial behaviour or other behavioural problems. It refers to a minor who is caught performing an index crime (an act that is illegal for both adults and minors, such as theft) or a status crime (an act that is only illegal for minors, such as alcohol consumption).

What is ADHD? - Chapter 9

What is ADHD? - Chapter 9

What are the three subtypes of ADHD?

ADHD is defined in many different ways. In the 1950s, the emphasis was on the hyperactivity characteristic of the disorder. Various terms were used at the time, such as hyperkinetic syndrome and hyperactive child syndrome . Over time, attention for hyperactivity and concentration problems decreased. In the DSM-III it was recognized that attention deficit disorder (ADD) could occur with and without hyperactivity. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) was not included in the revised version of the DSM-III . This disorder is also recognized by dimensional classification systems.

Research suggested that ADHD consists of two components: inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity. There is a lot of cross-cultural evidence for the validity of these factors. Although both components have unique genetic influences, they are interrelated as a result of shared genetic influences.

What disorders exist with language and learning? - Chapter 10

What disorders exist with language and learning? - Chapter 10

What is the historical perspective on language- and learning-related problems?

From around 1800 on, there has been attention on language-related problems. During this time, a medical orientation was developed, with specific limitations associated with brain abnormalities. For example, Wernicke discovered brain abnormalities in patients who did not understand language well, but who had no language or cognitive impairment – which you might know because there is a brain area named after him. From 1920 on, there was also a psychological orientation. During this period, more emphasis was placed on gaining insight into the characteristics of people with language and learning difficulties and treating them. In 1963, Krik introduced the term 'learning disabilities'. This is considered a milestone in the emergence of the concept of learning disabilities. For example, teachers were no longer accused of causing such problems.

What are intellectual disabilities? - Chapter 11

What are intellectual disabilities? - Chapter 11

What are the diagnostical criteria for intellectual disabilities?

An intellectual disability (ID, formerly also called mental retardation) is characterized by limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour. This is expressed in conceptual, social and practical skills. ID occurs before the eighteenth year of life. There are three diagnostic criteria:

  • Age criterion: an ID occurs before the age of 18, which means that it is a developmental disorder.
  • Limited intellectual functioning: the score on an intelligence test must be at least two standard deviations below the average (i.e. the IQ is 70 or lower).
  • Limitation in adaptation skills : the score on standardized tests of conceptual, social or practical skills must be at least two standard deviations below average.
What is autism and what is schizophrenia? - Chapter 12

What is autism and what is schizophrenia? - Chapter 12

What is the historical perspective of autism?

In the past, no distinction was made between schizophrenia and pervasive disorders, such as autism. Nowadays we do differentiate between them. Schizophrenia is rare among children, often develops in adolescence and increases in adulthood. Autism and Asperger's syndrome are non-psychotic disorders that arise at a young age.

The DSM-V contains the Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD) category. This category includes:

  1. Autistic disorder.
  2. Asperger's syndrome.
  3. Rett's syndrome.
  4. Childhood disintegrative disorder.
  5. Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified; PDD-NOS).
Which disorders affect physical functioning? - Chapter 13

Which disorders affect physical functioning? - Chapter 13

What is paediatric psychology?

Paediatric psychology is concerned with the investigation of (psychological) problems leading to disruption of physical function and health.

Problems with toilet training and learning sleeping and eating habits are common. Both the ability of the child to master these skills and the skills of parents to guide the child in this are important for the well-being of the child and parents. Sometimes parents seek help if they are unable to learn certain habits.

What is the connection between psychology and physical health? - Chapter 14

What is the connection between psychology and physical health? - Chapter 14

What is the terminology for disorders that affect physical health?

In the past, physical disorders that are influenced by psychological factors have been called psychosomatic disorders. In DSM-II this term had been replaced by psychophysiological disorders and in DSM-III this term had again been changed to psychological factors that influence physical conditions. In the DSM-IV this was transformed into psychological factors that influence medical conditions . Now in the DSM-V there is a new chapter called somatic symptoms and related disorders. This includes the psychological factors category that affect other medical conditions. These adjustments are the result of the discussion about the relationship between body (soma) and mind (psyche). During the 20th century, the interest in the effects of psychological processes on the body has resulted in the development of psychosomatic medicine. It became clear that many physical complaints are influenced by psychological factors. Researchers started with psychogenesis: the identification of the psychological cause of physical disorders. More attention is now being paid to multicausality: the idea that biological, social and psychological factors contribute to health. This perspective is holistic and assumes continuous interactions between influences. Pediatric psychology is the field that focuses on these processes in children and adolescents.

What issues are currently affecting young people? - Chapter 15

What issues are currently affecting young people? - Chapter 15

What are the consequences of changes in society for the care of children?

In recent decades, dramatic changes have taken place in families in the US due to an increased number of divorces, families with one parent and families with stepparents. Nowadays, with women having more and more jobs outside of the household, children are more often cared for by others than the mother, such as by relatives or at a day-care centre. The effect of this differs based on the quality of care, the amount of care and certain family characteristics. High quality care is positively related to the cognitive, social and language development of children who go to a day-care centre from an early age. The research findings regarding the effects of the amount of care are inconsistent. In general, the amount of care seems to be negatively related to the child's development. With regard to the interaction between childcare and family characteristics, it appears that children from low-income families benefit from care at a day-care. This means that care by others can serve as a protective factor for children from families with a low socio-economic status. It is also important that a good relationship between parents and child remains.

Summaries and study services with Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology by Wicks-Nelson & Israel – Booktool
JoHo nieuwsupdates voor inspiratie, motivatie en nieuwe ervaringen: winter 23/24

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