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Summaries and study assistance with Adolescence by Steinberg

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Summaries per chapter with the 12th edtion of Adolescence by Steinberg - Bundle

Summaries per chapter with the 12th edtion of Adolescence by Steinberg - Bundle

What is the study of adolescent development? - Chapter 0
What are the biological transitions? - Chapter 1

What are the biological transitions? - Chapter 1

A fundamental change that happens during adolescence concerns biological transitions. These transitions have a huge impact on the psychological and social development of teenagers.


What is puberty?

The term puberty refers to the period during which an individual becomes capable of sexual reproduction. It has three main physical manifestations:

  1. A quick acceleration in growth.

  2. The development of primary sex characteristics.

  3. The development of secondary sex characteristics.

These changes are the result of developments in the endocrine and central nervous systems.

The endocrine system produces, circulates and regulates levels of hormones. Important terms are:

  • Hormones: highly specialized substances that are secreted by one or more endocrine glands and enter the bloodstream.

  • Glands: organs that stimulate certain parts of the body to respond in specific ways.

  • Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons: specialized neurons that are activated by certain pubertal hormones.

The endocrine system received its instructions to increase or decrease circulating levels of certain hormones from the central nervous system, mainly through the firing of GnRH neurons in the brain. Hormonal levels are “set” at a certain point (set point), which may differ depending on the stage of development. When a certain hormonal level in the body dips below the set point for that hormone, secretion of the hormone increases; when the level reaches the set point, secretion temporarily stops. This is an example of a feedback loop. That is a cycle through which two or more bodily functions respond to and regulate each other.

Another feedback look is known as the HPG axis. That is the neuropysiological pathway that involves the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the gonads. Gonads are the glands that secrete sex hormones. The glands are the testes in males and the ovaries in females. The sex hormones are androgens and estrogens. The HPG axis is set to maintain certain levels of androgens and estrogens.

Adrenarche is the maturation of the adrenal glands that takes place during adolescence. This is an important term. Changes at puberty in the brain system that regulates the adrenal gland are also important because this is the brain system that controls how we respond to stress.

The onset of puberty is stimulated by an increase in kisspeptin, a brain chemical. A chemical called Leptin stimulates kisspeptin and a chemical called melatonin surpresses kisspeptin.

What is the somatic development?

The consequences of the hormonal changes of puberty on the body are remarkable. One of the is the growth spurt. That is the dramatic increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty. The peak height velocity is the time at which the adolescent is growing most rapidly. This is at the same rate as a toddler. A process called epiphysis marks the conclusion of puberty, because it is the closing of the ends of the long bones which terminates growth in height.

The growth spurt in height is accompanied by an increase in weight, because of an increase in both muscle and fat. There are important sex differences in body composition. Muscle tissue grows faster in boys than in girls. Body fat increases more for girls. Before puberty there is not much different for the sexes and this explains why differences in strength and athletic ability often appear for the first time during adolescence. But sex differences in physical ability are influenced by a variety of factors, of which hormonal differences are but one part of a complex picture.

The development of the secondary sex characteristics is often divided into five stages and these stages are also called the Tanner stages. Secondary sex characteristics is the manifestations of sexual maturity at puberty. Boys are generally fertile before they have developed an adult-like appearance. Girls generally appear physically mature before they are fertile. Menarche is the beginning of menstruation and is a relatively late development. Full reproductive function does not occur until numerous years after menarche.

Variations in the age at which puberty begins and in the rate at which maturation occurs are so great that is is misleading to talk even about average ages. There is no relation between the age at which puberty begins and the rate at which pubertal development proceeds.

When identical twins and individuals who are not genetically identical are compared with regards to the timing and tempo of a person’s pubertal maturation results indicate that the timing and tempo are largely inherited. The environment nonetheless plays an important role. The timing and tempo are the product of an interaction between nature and nurture. The two most important environmental factors are nutrition and health. Puberty occurs earlier among individuals who are better nourished.

Some study results indicate that social factors in the home environment may influence the onset of maturation. An explanation for this is that tension in the family may induce stress, which may affect hormonal secretions in the adolescent.

Secular trend is the tendency, over the past 200 years, for individuals to be larger in stature and to reach puberty earlier, primarily because of improvements in health and nutrition.

What is the psychological and social impact of puberty?

Adolescent’s behavior and psychological functioning can be affected by puberty in a number of ways:

  • Behavior can be directly affected by the biological changes of puberty.

  • The adolescent’s self image can change because of the changes in puberty and this can affect how the adolescent behaves.

  • Others may react differently to the teenager, because of the new appearance of the adolescent caused by the biological changes. This, in turn, might provoke changes in the behavior.

To study the psychological and social effects of puberty, researchers have generally taken two approaches:

  1. Cross-sectional study: a study that compares two or more groups of individuals at one point in time.

  2. Longitudinal study: a study that follows the same group of individuals over time.

Study results indicate that physical maturation affects the adolescent’s:

  • Self-image: the impact is to a great extent shaped by the social context.

  • Mood: there is little evidence that moodiness results exclusively from hormones. The moods of adolescents fluctuate during the day more than the moods of adults. These shifts in mood appear to have more to do with shifts in activities than with internal, biological changes.

  • Relationship with parents: puberty appears to increase conflict and distance between parents and children.

Adolescents seem to have a delayed phase preferences. That is a pattern of sleep characterized by later sleep and wake times, which usually emerges during puberty. It appears that it is driven by the biological changes of puberty. The tendency to stay up late is due to interaction of biology and the environment, which provides reasons to stay up. The preferred bedtime gets later as individuals move into adolescence, the amount of sleep needed remains around nine hours.

Most adolescents react positively to the biological changes associated with puberty, especially those related to the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Findings on the emotional effects of early maturation on boys are mixed, but research results do indicate that early-maturing boys are more likely than their peers to get involved in antisocial or deviant activities. An explanation might be that boys who look mature physically are less closely supervised by adults. An other explanation might be that older-looking boys develop friendships with older peers, who lead them into activities that are problematic.

A lot of research findings show that early-maturing girls have more emotional difficulties than their peers. These difficulties seem to arrive from the ways in which looking different from their peers affects girls’ feelings about their appearance and social relationships with other adolescents.

There are numerous theories explaining why early maturation is harder on girls than boys. The‘Maturational deviance’ hypothesis states that teenagers who stand far apart from their peers may experience more psychological distress than adolescents who blend in more easily. Early-maturing girls mature earlier than boys and girls. This makes them stand out at a time when they would rather not stand out. A second explanation focuses on ‘developmental readiness’. Younger adolescents might be less ready to cope with the challenge of psychological adaptation necessary for puberty than older adolescents. A third explanation focuses on the cultural desirability of different body types. Early maturers experience weight gain at a time when most of their peers are still girlishly thin. For boys, this is often the other way around, where society admires a tall and muscular man.

Early maturing girls are also more likely to become involved in problem behavior. Just as with boys, these girls are more likely to spend time unsupervised and hanging out with older peers. It is still important to consider the role of context. The predisposition may be realized only in an environment that permits the behavior and / or have many stressful life events.

What is obesity and what are eating disorders?

During puberty the body’s basal metabolism rate drops with about 15 percent. Basal metabolism rate is the minimal amount of energy used by the body during a resting state. An individual’s weight is partly dependent on this rate.

To calculate the body mass index (BMI) of an individual, is the easiest way to determine if someone is overweight. BMI is a measure of an person’s body fat, the ratio of weight to height, used to gauge overweight and obesity. Someone is considered obese if their BMI is at or above the 95th percentile for people of the same age and gender and they are considered overweight if their BMI is at or above the 85th percentile.

Obesity is a result of the interaction of genetic and environmental factors, as is indicated by current research. Current neuroimaging studies show that people at risk for obesity show: relatively greater activation of the brain’s reward centers in general, heightened responses to images of food, and poorer impulse control.

Besides genetic factors, obesity also has strong environmental causes, for example: little stimulation for exercise, inadequate sleep, and easy access to unhealthy foods. Obese adolescents are also relatively more likely to have obese friends, which may reinforce bad behavioral habits. Research findings also indicate that adversity early in life is related to obesity in adolescence, maybe because stress exposure can undermine the subsequent development of self control.

Disordered eating is a mild, moderate or severe disturbance in eating habits and attitudes. Some girls become so concerned about gaining weight that they take drastic measures to remain skinny:

  • Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder found chiefly among young women, characterized by dramatic and severe self-induced weight loss.

  • Bulimia is an eating disorder found primarily among young women, characterized by a pattern of binge eating and extreme weight loss measures, including self-induced vomiting.

There is a third identified eating disorder, which increases the risk of obesity:

  • Binge eating disorder is an eating disorder characterized by a pattern of binge eating that is not accompanied by drastic attempts to lose weight.

The field of adolescent health care has grown quickly. This is a field of study and health care devoted to understanding the health care needs of individuals during the second decade of life. The biggest threat to adolescent health is unhealthy behaviors, violence and risky activities. Health behavior is influenced by several factors, such as knowledge and changes in context.

What are the cognitive transitions? - Chapter 2
What are the social transitions? - Chapter 3
What is the influence of the family context on adolescence? - Chapter 4
What is the influence of peer groups on adolescence? - Chapter 5
What is the influence of the school context on adolescence? - Chapter 6
What is the influence of work, leisure and media on adolescence? - Chapter 7
How does identity develop? - Chapter 8
How does autonomy develop? - Chapter 9
How does intimacy develop? - Chapter 10
How does sexuality develop? - Chapter 11
How does achievement develop? - Chapter 12
What psychosocial problems can occur in adolescence? - Chapter 13
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